Table 1. Growth factors, hormones, and other supplements and their functions during myogenesis and cultured meat production. Several GFs (IGFs, insulin, TGF-β, FGF, PDGF, and HGF) and hormones (thyroid hormones, testosterone, and glucocorticoids) and other supplements (heme proteins, transferrin, BMP, and mTOR) and their functions during cultured meat production and myogenesis are mentioned

Supplements Function Embryonic MSC Myogenic progenitor cells Tissue engineering References
IGF-1 ▪ Induces the proliferation and differentiation of cultured myoblast and promotes tissue growth and development V V V [4044]
IGF-2 ▪ Stimulate both proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts and MSC. V V [42,45]
TGF-β ▪ Helps in collagen type I synthesis in the ECM, and supporting myofiber development V V [4648]
FGF2 ▪ Activate myogenic progenitor cells and promotes proliferation and growth of mouse myoblasts.▪ Upregulates Myf5 and MyoD.▪ Increases the MSC proliferation. V V V [4952]
FGF21 ▪ Involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. V [53,54]
Insulin ▪ Promotes MSC survival, self-renewal, and myoblast growth.▪ Regulators of muscle protein synthesis and hypertrophy. V V [43,5558]
HGF ▪ Activation of quiescent MSC in vivo upon muscle injury. V V [52,59,60]
Testosterone ▪ Increase in muscle fiber size and MSC number. [6163]
Transferrin ▪ Stimulate myogenesis and terminal differentiation in fast chicken muscle during embryonic development. V V V [64,65]
Heme protein (Hemoglobin and myoglobin) ▪ Provides typical color of meat and slightly metallic taste of beef.▪ Increase the iron content in the product. [66,67]
BMP ▪ Preserve the progenitor pool by inhibiting the Myf5 and MyoD expression. [68]
mTOR ▪ Regulate MSC activity and myogenesis by upregulating the expression of Pax7, Myf5, MyoD, and myogenin. [69,70]
Creatine ▪ Reduces muscle damage by decreasing the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, and activating MSC. Helps in myopathies. [71,72]
PDGF ▪ Increases and improve MSC proliferation. V V [68,73,74]
Thyroxine ▪ Helps to myotube in maintaining their differentiated state for a longer period. V V [57]
GF, growth factor; IGF, insulin-like growth factors; TGF, transforming growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factors; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; MSC, muscle satellite (stem) cell; ECM, extracellular matrix.