IGF-1 | ▪ Induces the proliferation and differentiation of cultured myoblast and promotes tissue growth and development | V | V | V | [40–44] |
IGF-2 | ▪ Stimulate both proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts and MSC. | V | V | | [42,45] |
TGF-β | ▪ Helps in collagen type I synthesis in the ECM, and supporting myofiber development | V | | V | [46–48] |
FGF2 | ▪ Activate myogenic progenitor cells and promotes proliferation and growth of mouse myoblasts.▪ Upregulates Myf5 and MyoD.▪ Increases the MSC proliferation. | V | V | V | [49–52] |
FGF21 | ▪ Involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. | | V | | [53,54] |
Insulin | ▪ Promotes MSC survival, self-renewal, and myoblast growth.▪ Regulators of muscle protein synthesis and hypertrophy. | V | V | | [43,55–58] |
HGF | ▪ Activation of quiescent MSC in vivo upon muscle injury. | | V | V | [52,59,60] |
Testosterone | ▪ Increase in muscle fiber size and MSC number. | | | | [61–63] |
Transferrin | ▪ Stimulate myogenesis and terminal differentiation in fast chicken muscle during embryonic development. | V | V | V | [64,65] |
Heme protein (Hemoglobin and myoglobin) | ▪ Provides typical color of meat and slightly metallic taste of beef.▪ Increase the iron content in the product. | | | | [66,67] |
BMP | ▪ Preserve the progenitor pool by inhibiting the Myf5 and MyoD expression. | | | | [68] |
mTOR | ▪ Regulate MSC activity and myogenesis by upregulating the expression of Pax7, Myf5, MyoD, and myogenin. | | | | [69,70] |
Creatine | ▪ Reduces muscle damage by decreasing the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, and activating MSC. Helps in myopathies. | | | | [71,72] |
PDGF | ▪ Increases and improve MSC proliferation. | | V | V | [68,73,74] |
Thyroxine | ▪ Helps to myotube in maintaining their differentiated state for a longer period. | V | V | | [57] |