Unraveling the complexity of stress responses in cattle with a focus on immune function

Cattle are susceptible to various stresses in current agricultural systems, including environmental challenges and management-related factors. Understanding the mechanisms underlying stress responses is critical to ensure animal welfare and improve their overall productivity and well-being. Ongoing scientific research focuses on the complex regulatory pathways associated with stress responses in cattle. Despite the extensive research in this field, comprehensive reviews integrating current knowledge with recent advances are lacking. In this comprehensive review, we explore the intricate regulatory systems underlying stress responses in cattle and provide a comprehensive overview of these regulatory mechanisms and physiological responses of cattle under stress conditions. The physiological responses to stress stimuli can differ and involve both positive and negative feedback mechanisms regulating stress reactions in cattle, leading to hormonal responses and altered immune function. This review highlights the effects of stress on cattle well-being, which includes physiological and hormonal regulation, health, and immune function. Moreover, the effects of environmental conditions, stocking density, and management of stress responses in the cattle have been discussed. Furthermore, this review thoroughly examines the stress response-associated molecular pathways and signaling processes, including the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, cortisol production, and cellular inflammatory responses. This review provides crucial insights into potential interventions and propose effective management strategies to mitigate the impact of stress on cattle health and productivity by elucidating the regulatory mechanisms underlying stress responses. An in-depth knowledge of stress regulation in cattle can improve the animal management practices and promote cattle health.